Selasa, 06 Januari 2009

Who's Sir Isaac Newton?

FRS (4 January 164331 March 1727 [OS: 25 December 164220 March 1726])[1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian and one of the most influential men[4] in human history. His PhilosophiƦ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, is considered to be the most influential book in the history of science. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics, which dominated the scientific view of the physical Universe for the next three centuries and is the basis for modern engineering. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.

In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he built the first "practical" reflecting telescope[5] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.

In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

Newton was also highly religious (though unorthodox), producing more work on Biblical hermeneutics than the natural science he is remembered for today.

Newton's stature among scientists remains at the very top rank, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of scientists in Britain's Royal Society asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton was deemed much more influential than Albert Einstein.[6]

What's Mathematics meant?

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Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens.[1]

Mathematics is the academic discipline, and its supporting body of knowledge, that involves the study of such concepts as quantity, structure, space and change. The mathematician Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[2] Other practitioners of mathematics maintain that mathematics is the science of pattern, and that mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere.[3][4] Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.[5]

Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in mathematical texts originating in the ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese, Greek and Islamic worlds. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. The development continued in fitful bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century, when mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries, leading to an acceleration in research that continues to the present day.[6]

Today, mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences such as economics and psychology. Applied mathematics, the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind, although practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.[7]

Biography of Sir Muhammed Iqbal

Sir Muhammed Iqbal Muhammad Allama Iqbal was born on November 9th in Sialkot, in the Punjab province of then India (now Pakistan). His initial education was in Lahore, and at the age of 28 he studied in the hallowed halls of Cambridge, gaining a degree in Philosophy, after that came a qualification in law which was how he was to earn a living as a barrister in London. He was later to receive a doctorate from Munich for his thesis on Persian Metaphysics and Islamic mysticism unveiling some of the hidden aspects of the faith to western scholars.
His poetry and essays before his journey west were affirmations of his patriotism for India Naya Shawala (The new Alter). However upon his return he had developed a twofold distaste for nationalism:
1: For the damage he had seen in Europe where nationalism had racially imperialistic overtones, and:
2: The India he had grown up in now seemed to Muhammad to be unequal in common purpose.
It was on his return that Muhammad expressed a way forward utilizing a Pan-Islamic direction, there are in his writings of the time, melancholic undertones, and nostalgic visions of the past. He also wrote of the then current 'slumber' and decay of Islam and called for a unified renaissance.
Iqbal was at this point in his life a respected philosophical thinker and Islamic scholar, his poetry was widely acclaimed and well known, his readings to the masses bought him closer to the general population of Indian Muslims and it was from these meetings and readings that the seed of Pakistan was sown. His most noted pieces of this time Shikwah, Jawab-e Shikwah and Khizr-e Rah , later published in the Urdu collection Bang-e Dara .
He received, in 1915 both vilification and critical acclaim for his long poem Asrar-e Khudi written in Persian so as to maximize its impact.He was thought by his detractors to be imposing western philosophies on Islam.
Although distrusting and rejecting western ideals, he was honoured with a knighthood in 1922. The following years saw yet more volumes, enhancing the virtues of Islam as he saw it, a passionate and compassionate faith.

Muhammad Allama Iqbal died in Lahore in 1938, never seeing the vision that was passionate in his writing for many years, that of a modern Muslim society finally flower into the country of Pakistan. ..
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